Questions 1 to 5 are based on the following passage.
1. What the author discussed in the previous section is most probably about ____.
A) relationships between causes and results
B) classification of reasoning
C) some other common types of reasoning
D) some special type of reasoning
2. According to the passage, to do the "effect to effect" reasoning is to reason ____.
A) from cause to effect
B) from effect to cause
C) from effect to effect and on to cause
D) from effect to cause and on to another effect
3. A necessary cause is ____.
A) one without which it is impossible for the effect to occur
B) one of the causes that can produce the effect
C) one that is enough to make the effect occur
D) none of them
4. Your refrigerator is not working and you have found that the electric power has been cut off.
The power failure is a ____.
A) necessary cause B) sufficient cause
C) contributory cause D) none of them
5. This passage mainly discusses ____.
A) causal reasoning B) classification of cause
C) various types of reasoning D) the causal process
Questions 1 to 5 are based on the following passage.
Another common type of reasoning is the search for causes and results. We want to know whether cigarettes really do cause lung cancer, what cause malnutrition（營養不良）, the decay of cities, or the decay of teeth. We are equally interested in effects: what is the effect of sulphur or lead in the atmosphere, of oil spills and raw sewage (污水、污物）in rivers and the sea, of staying up late on the night before an examination?
注：1.reasoning 推理
2.第一句 Another...下結論，是主題句
3.第二、三句 We want to ...an examination?是舉例,可以略讀
4.malnutrition 中“mal”是表示“不好”的前綴；overnutrition 營養過剩
Causal reasoning may go from cause to effect or from effect to cause. Either way, we reason from what we know to what we want to find out. Sometimes we reason from an effect to a cause and then on to another effect. Thus, if we reason that because the lights have gone out, the refrigerator won't work we first relate the effect (lights out) to the cause (power off) and then relate that cause to another effect. This kind of reasoning is called, for short, effect to effect. It is quite common to reason through an extensive chain of causal relations. When the lights go out we might reason in the following causal chain: lights out-power off-refrigerator not working -temperature will rise-milk will sour. In other words, we diagnose （判定）a succession of effects from the power failure, each becoming the cause of the next.
注：1.causal 原因的，因果關系的
2.三種推理方式：從原因到結果、從結果到原因、從結果到原因再到另一個結果，第三種更重要
3.extensive 廣泛的，來自extend延伸 extensive reading 泛讀
4.In other words 換而言之 a succession of 一系列
5.本段講關系鏈
Causes are classified as necessary, sufficient, or contributory（起輔助作用的）. A necessary cause is one which must be present for the effect to occur, as combustion (燃燒)，is necessary to drive a gasoline engine. A sufficient cause is one which can produce an effect unaided (獨自的), though there may be more than one sufficient cause: a dead battery is enough to keep a car from starting, but faulty spark plugs（火花塞）or an empty gas tank will have the same effect. A contributory cause is one which helps to produce an effect but cannot do so by itself, as running through a red light may help cause an accident, though other factors --- pedestrians (行人) or other cars in the intersection-must also be present.
注：intersection 交叉路口 inter+section
In establishing or refuting (駁斥，反斥) a causal relation it is usually necessary to show the process by which the alleged (所宣稱的，所指稱的) cause produces the effect. Such an explanation is called a causal process.
注：在證實或駁斥因果關系需要把推理過程顯示出來，如燈滅了，牛奶變酸：燈滅了-停電-冰箱不工作-溫度上升-牛奶變酸
1. What the author discussed in the previous section is most probably about ____.
A) relationships between causes and results
B) classification of reasoning
C) some other common types of reasoning
D) some special type of reasoning 注：文章之前的段落內容=首句+結構提示詞，one-the other/some-another
Another common type of reasoning is the search for causes and results. We want to know whether cigarettes really do cause lung cancer, what cause malnutrition（營養不良）, the decay of cities, or the decay of teeth. We are equally interested in effects: what is the effect of sulphur or lead in the atmosphere, of oil spills and raw sewage (污水、污物）in rivers and the sea, of staying up late on the night before an examination?
2. According to the passage, to do the "effect to effect" reasoning is to reason
A) from cause to effect
B) from effect to cause
C) from effect to effect and on to cause
D) from effect to cause and on to another effect
3. A necessary cause is ____.
A) one without which it is impossible for the effect to occur
B) one of the causes that can produce the effect
C) one that is enough to make the effect occur
D) none of them
注：第三段，A選項是必須在場的相同意思的改寫。B選項是原因之一，sufficient cause，C選項沒有 "必須"含義。
Causes are classified as necessary, sufficient, or contributory（起輔助作用的）. A necessary cause is one which must be present for the effect to occur, as combustion (燃燒)，is necessary to drive a gasoline engine. A sufficient cause is one which can produce an effect unaided (獨自的), though there may be more than one sufficient cause: a dead battery is enough to keep a car from starting, but faulty spark plugs（火花塞）or an empty gas tank will have the same effect. A contributory cause is one which helps to produce an effect but cannot do so by itself, as running through a red light may help cause an accident, though other factors --- pedestrians (行人) or other cars in the intersection-must also be present.
4. Your refrigerator is not working and you have found that the electric power has been cut off.
The power failure is a ____.
A) necessary cause B) sufficient cause
C) contributory cause D) none of them
注：斷電不是冰箱不工作的必要原因，而是原因之一，冰箱壞了也可以導致冰箱不工作。
Causes are classified as necessary, sufficient, or contributory（起輔助作用的）. A necessary cause is one which must be present for the effect to occur, as combustion (燃燒)，is necessary to drive a gasoline engine. A sufficient cause is one which can produce an effect unaided (獨自的), though there may be more than one sufficient cause: a dead battery is enough to keep a car from starting, but faulty spark plugs（火花塞）or an empty gas tank will have the same effect. A contributory cause is one which helps to produce an effect but cannot do so by itself, as running through a red light may help cause an accident, though other factors --- pedestrians (行人) or other cars in the intersection-must also be present.
5. This passage mainly discusses ____.
A) causal reasoning B) classification of cause
C) various types of reasoning
D) the causal process
注：主題題。文中只提到因果關系推理的幾種操作方法
Another common type of reasoning is the search for causes and results. We want to know whether cigarettes really do cause lung cancer, what cause malnutrition（營養不良）, the decay of cities, or the decay of teeth. We are equally interested in effects: what is the effect of sulphur or lead in the atmosphere, of oil spills and raw sewage (污水、污物）in rivers and the sea, of staying up late on the night before an examination? |
